UNICEF and the Safeguard of Children Rights Essay Example for Free

UNICEF and the Safeguard of Children Rights Essay UNICEF’s mission is to advocate for the protection of children’s rights, to help meet their basic needs and to expand their opportunities to reach their full potential. UNICEF is guided in doing this by the provisions and principles of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNICEF, 2008). Built on varied legal systems and cultural traditions, the Convention is a universally agreed set of non-negotiable standards and obligations (UNICEF, 2006). The Convention on the Rights of the Child is the first legally binding international instrument to incorporate the full range of human rights civil, cultural, economic, political and social rights (Freeman, 1996). In 1989, world leaders decided that children needed a special convention just for them because people under eighteen years old often need special care and protection that adults do not (Alston, 1992). The leaders also wanted to make sure that the world recognized that children have human rights too. The Convention sets out these rights in 54 articles and two Optional Protocols. It spells out the basic human rights that children everywhere have: the right to survival; to develop to the fullest; to protection from harmful influences, abuse and exploitation; and to participate fully in family, cultural and social life (UNICEF, 2006). The four core principles of the Convention are non-discrimination; devotion to the best interests of the child; the right to life, survival and development; and respect for the views of the child (Jasper, 1994). Every right spelled out in the Convention is inherent to the human dignity and harmonious development of every child. The Convention protects childrens rights by setting standards in health care; education; and legal, civil and social services (Jasper, 1994). By agreeing to undertake the obligations of the Convention, national governments committed themselves to protecting and ensuring childrens rights and they have agreed to hold themselves accountable for this commitment before the international community. States parties to the Convention are obliged to develop and undertake all actions and policies in the light of the best interests of the child (Stein, 1998). Most of the governments have incorporated this issue in their development plan courtesy of UNICEF. UNICEFs work for the overall protection of childhood is guided by the principles and standards established by the Convention on the Rights of the Child (Walker, 1999). In advocating to protect childrens rights, to help meet their basic needs and to expand their opportunities to reach their full potential, UNICEF helps to change the legal and policy framework of States parties and to improve understanding of the Convention itself at all levels of society (Walker, 1999). Among other activities, UNICEF works in nearly 160 countries to support ratification and implementation of the Convention and the Optional Protocols on the involvement of children in armed conflict and on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography (UNICEF, 2008). UNICEF draws attention to the duties of governments, families, communities and individuals to respect those rights and supports them in doing so. During armed conflict, children are targeted for the worst possible violence and abuse, including abduction, rape and recruitment as child soldiers, and may be forced or coerced to take part in atrocities (Peters, 1997). Because children are among the most affected by conflict they become victims and witnesses of these offences (Brandes, 1999). The lack of accountability for conflict-related crimes against children can leave child victims vulnerable to further violation and abuse. Accountability in post-conflict situations can fulfill a number of important functions (Peters, 1997). It contributes to the process of healing and helps children understand that they are not to blame for what has happened. By investigating and documenting violations committed, accountability processes raise public awareness of the impacts of conflict on children (Dobrish, 1999). Accountability can also help to break the cycle of violence, restore confidence in democracy and the rule of law, and strengthen the legitimacy and authority of the new government (Fox, 1997). In recent years, truth, justice and reconciliation processes have begun to focus specifically on crimes committed against children and have involved children proactively, including through testimony that bears witness to their experiences(Dobrish, 1999). The recent involvement of children and adolescents in providing testimony to international and national courts and truth commissions has demonstrated their unique role as participants and as members of their communities (UNICEF, 2008). But if children are to engage in transitional justice processes their rights must be respected. The review and analysis of emerging good practices on the involvement of children and adolescents in truth, justice and reconciliation processes has brought to light a number of dilemmas. For example, it is recognized that children and adolescents who have been recruited to take part in hostilities are primarily victims of armed conflict. At the same time, many argue that some form of accountability for crimes committed by children is in their best interests and could contribute to processes of reconciliation and reintegration (Teitelbaum, 1999). Mechanisms of accountability for serious violations committed during armed conflict include a wide range of options, such as judicial prosecutions, truth commissions, restorative justice processes and traditional practices (Kurmay, 1996). When children engage in truth, justice and reconciliation processes, new possibilities and new challenges are encountered. In a number of instances, child-friendly procedures have been introduced to safeguard the rights of children who become involved and to support their protection throughout the process (Teitelbaum, 1999). This can help build children’s confidence and restore their sense of justice in the social and political order, while also establishing a mechanism of accountability for crimes committed against them. However, many questions remain as to how best to protect the rights of children involved as victims and witnesses in these contexts. Ideally children’s participation should strengthen and enhance their protection, and protection measures should enable participation (Kurmay, 1996). In the long term, if children are excluded from transitional processes, they may become frustrated and vulnerable to a continuing cycle of violence, impacting future generations. Failure to address their concerns also wastes the capacity and potential of children and adolescents to serve as catalysts for reconciliation and peace-building within their own communities (Dwyer, 1999). The importance of furthering efforts to support children’s involvement in transitional justice processes was identified during an expert discussion on Transitional Justice and Children convened by the UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre (IRC) in November 2005. It was proposed that research on children and truth commissions be undertaken, identifying good practices and lessons learned, and recommending strategies to improve and facilitate children’s participation in future truth commissions(UNICEF, 2006). Documentation on the role of children in truth commissions was initiated by UNICEF IRC and the International Center for Transitional Justice (ICTJ) (UNICEF, 2006). In the course of research underway on children and truth commissions, a number of issues have emerged requiring further research and analysis in order to better understand the potential and the limits of children’s participation in transitional justice processes (ACF, 2007). As a result it was decided to initiate an Expert Paper Series on Children and Transitional Justice, addressing a broad range of issues, including judicial accountability, truth-seeking, local, traditional and restorative justice processes, and institutional reform. The Series has helped to build a network for sharing information and expertise, generating discussion and debate among key stakeholders (UNICEF, 2006). These include child protection advocates, government agents, legal experts and academics. The objective of the expert paper series is to improve accountability for crimes against children and to protect the rights of children involved in transitional justice processes (ACF, 2007). Specific papers will document and analyze emerging good practices and lessons learned; evaluate the potential role of children; and anticipate and promote strategies for involving children in future transitional processes(ACF, 2007). It is anticipated that studies undertaken in this series will help to guide the involvement of children in truth, justice and reconciliation processes in post-conflict transition. UNICEF works closely with other human rights bodies such as Human Security Network (HSN). This is an organization which has a long-standing commitment to human rights and to the protection of the most vulnerable both in peace and in times of conflict (Marta, 2007). The Human Security Network plays a decisive role in advancing the implementation of the Convention and of its two Optional Protocols, and in reaffirming, in each and every decision the general principles of non discrimination, best interests of the child, survival and development and participation of the child (UNICEF, 2008). The year 2007 was a landmark year for the protection of children’s rights. Indeed, 2007 marked the 18th anniversary of the adoption of the Convention on the Rights of the Child (Marta, 2007). As the Convention entered a new stage of adulthood there was an opportunity to celebrate the many important achievements and to critically reflect on the best ways of addressing the challenges ahead. The year was also marked by the General Assembly mid decade review of the follow-up to the Special Session on Children. This process was an important opportunity to reaffirm our shared commitment to children, to advance the Millennium Agenda and further consolidate a world fit for children (Marta, 2007). By 2007, there is a full prohibition of all forms of violence against children in 19 countries (UNICEF, 2008). Legislation was adopted in The Netherlands where law enactment is being supported by a communication plan designed to inform parents and the general public about the legal ban in the lead up to its entry into force. New Zealand has banned the use of reasonable force for parents in the disciplining of their children (ACF, 2008). In a number of other nations draft legislation has been prepared and in others public commitments have been undertaken to ban all forms of violence (ACF, 2008). Once the changes become effective within each of these States, one fifth of the UN Member States would have extended legal protection to prevent violence against children (UNICEF, 2008). UNICEF have recently developed and launched a Handbook on what parliamentarians can do to protect children from violence (UNICEF, 2008). With the participation of parliamentarians and international organizations from more than 100 countries, the launch was an opportunity to anticipate actions parliaments can take to ensure children’s freedom from violence, including through their legislative power, and to encourage and oversee government action and to promote the allocation of resources for relevant programmes and interventions(UNICEF, 2008). The Handbook will be translated in national languages and used as an important tool to support follow-up to the UN Study on Violence (Marta, 2007). The Human Security Network have partnered to promote its wide dissemination and use. Naturally, legislation is only meaningful when it is effectively applied. To make law enforcement a reality it is important to engage children in the process of implementation (Masson, 1999). It is for this reason that UNICEF has joined efforts with a number of partners to produce the child friendly version of the UN Guidelines on justice in matters involving child victims and witnesses of crime. The child friendly version was launched at the recent Crime Prevention Commission, in Vienna (UNICEF, 2008). The previous months show the instrumental role played by Professor Pinheiro as a global advocate and a catalyst for social change. But the task is just beginning and only by moving the implementation forward can we build a world free from violence for every child, wherever he or she may live (Marta, 2007). France hosted a major conference in 2006 where a wide range partners endorsed the Paris Principles to stop the recruitment and use of children in adult wars. The document represents the state of the art knowledge in the prevention, protection and reintegration of children recruited by armed forces and groups. And it has a unique potential to ensure the realization of children’s rights more broadly (UNICEF, 2008). These milestones are mutually complementary and provide a strategic vision for the future. More importantly, they give us a golden occasion to make a real difference in the lives of children (UNICEF, 2008). At the heart of this process are two closely related dimensions; child participation and the prevention of violence and conflict. Together, they both support the protection of children’s rights. A recent study of the Innocenti Research Centre a partner of UNICEF on â€Å"Birth Registration and Armed Conflict† revealed a few truths. Birth Registration is a permanent and official record of a child’s existence (Marta, 2007). It is a fundamental human right and has strong implications for the enjoyment of other human rights it thus stand as a vivid illustration of the indivisibility of children’s rights and a call to always keep a child centered approach. In times of war, birth registration gains a special relevance for child protection, for the prevention of child recruitment, abduction and exploitation, as well as for access to humanitarian assistance (ABA, 2007). Over 25 truth commissions have been convened in various countries over the last decades and several have addressed the experiences of children (ABA, 2007). But the Truth Reconciliation Commission (TRC) for Sierra Leone was the first truth commission to specifically focus on children as victims and witnesses, and to profile children’s role as actors in the reconciliation process. It is also the first case where a children’s version of the Commission’s report was prepared (ACF, 2008 ). The children’s version of the Sierra Leone Truth and Reconciliation Commission Report is one example of how children can contribute to community efforts towards reconciliation and transition, while helping to break the cycle of violence and re-establish confidence in the rule of law. UNICEF has had its fair share of challenges in protecting the rights of children. Civil wars especially in Africa have always targeted the children as recruits and this has always been a hurdle for the organization to overcome. Advocacy for children rights in a civic war infested area has not always been easy for them since the lives of the employees are also threatened. Lack of political will in various countries to support the UNICEF’s initiatives has been another monster in children rights protection. Some government agents like the police may be uncooperative in issues of child trafficking, pornography and other related cases hence the risk of failing to catch non-convicted abusers. Other barriers that have been along UNICEF’s path to success are undeveloped, unimplemented and conflicting policies on children rights and responsibilities in many countries. Lack of adequate funds to support their initiatives especially in less developed countries. Traditional practices and taboos among communities are also a major impediment since some encourage abusive practices against children such as communities’ warriors, early marriages, and local slave trade among others. Children are members of their communities and by taking part in community action they increase awareness and confidence and build their capacity for citizenship (Teitelbaum, 1999). Through their involvement in community reconciliation efforts, children can become advocates and catalysts within their families and communities, energizing reconciliation and nation building efforts (Jackson, 1999). It is by addressing the root causes of conflict and providing realistic opportunities for young people that we can begin to break the inter-generational violence that has resulted in protracted conflicts in many countries today. Finally, as we move forward and support actions to prevent all forms of violence in peace and in war through UNICEF, we must not forget that at the centre of all our efforts are individual children whose lives hang in the balance of our actions. We cannot wait another minute. When Graca Machel prepared her report in 1995, she was asked by a child, â€Å"How long will it take before things get better? A month, a year? † Today that child is an adult and another generation of children is asking the same question (UNICEF, 2008). How long will it take? The life of a child leaves no second chance. That is the urgency that must drive us in our efforts to make a real difference, a lasting difference. References: Alston, Philip, et al. , Children, rights, and the law. Oxford England: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press, 1992. Alston, Philip. The best interests of the child: reconciling culture and human rights. Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press, 1994. Angel, William D. The international law of youth rights : source documents and commentary. Dordrecht ; Boston : M. Nijhoff, 1995. Carey, Jacqueline M. Section of Family Law Home Page. American Bar Association Family Law Section. URL: http://www. abanet. org/family/ Cohen, Cynthia Price. Childrens rights in America : U. N. Convention on the rights of the child compared with United States law. [Chicago, Ill. ] : American Bar Association Center on Children and the Law, [in cooperation with] Defense for Children International-USA, c1990. Freeman, Michael. Childrens rights : a comparative perspective. Aldershot, Hants, England ; Brookfield, Vt. : Dartmouth Pub. Co. , c1996. Jasper, Margaret C. Juvenile justice and childrens law. Dobbs Ferry, NY : Oceana Publications, 1994. Masson, J. M. (Judith M. ) Out of hearing : representing children in care proceedings. Chichester ; New York : Wiley, c1999. Mezey, Susan Gluck. Children in court : public policymaking and federal court decisions. Albany : State University of New York Press, c1996.

Who is Responsible for Military Robots’ Lethal Actions? Essay

I) Introduction Robotic technology has enabled the US military to use autonomous robots (or unmanned systems, UMS) in modern warfare. In the war with Iraq, the US military sent 12000 ground robots at the end of 2008 (P. W. Singer). One of the most popular robots used in Iraq is the iRobot Packbot, an unmanned ground vehicle, which is capable of detecting and destroying improvised explosive devices. Exploiting robots in warfare can save lives of many human soldiers. Moreover, robots are faster, have longer endurance, high precision and immunity to chemical and biological weapons (Ronald Arkin).In the National Defense Act of 2001 the U.S. Congress, obviously impressed by the potential of robots saving lives on the battlefield, established the requirement for one-third of the ground vehicles and one-third of the deep-strike aircraft in the military to be robotic within the decade. Consequently, in the â€Å"Fiscal Year 2009-2034 Unmanned Systems Integrated Roadmap† of the office of the secretary of defense showed the four categories that will be focused on are reconnaissance and surveillance, target identification and designation, counter-mine and explosive ordnance disposal, and chemical, biological, radiological and nuclear detection (Stew Magnuson). As for now, most of the robot soldiers in the field are not fully autonomy. They are controlled by human soldier operators. However, the pressure of wars and the superior advantage of robots which can make decisions on their own will shift the interest in developing autonomous robots. In battle field, the time to decide whether or not to take action is too short that it would be impractical that a robot must send a signal to an operator and wait for the permission to fire (Ronald Arkin)... ...gner, A.R., and Duncan, B., â€Å"Responsibility and Lethality for Unmanned Systems: Ethical Pre-Mission Responsibility Advisement†. GVU Technical Report GIT-GVU-09-01, GVU Center, Georgia Institute of Technology, 2009. Asaro, P. M., â€Å"Robots and Responsibility from a Legal Perspective†. IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation. Roma, Italy. April 2007. Magnuson, S., â€Å" Robo Ethics†. National Defense (Volume 94, Issue 672, Nov 2009), 28-29. Singer, P. W., â€Å"Military Robots and the Laws of War†. New Atlantic: A Journal of Technology & Society (Volume 23, Winter 2009), 25-45. Sparrow, R., â€Å"Building a Better WarBot: Ethical Issues in the Design of Unmanned Systems for Military Applications†. Science and Engineering Ethics (Volume 15, Number 2 / June, 2009), 169-187. Sparrow, R., â€Å"Killer Robots†. Journal of Applied Philosophy , Vol. 24, No. 1, 2006.

Rethinking Calculus

Mathematics can sometimes seem scary for me, and I am sure that a lot of other high school students feel the same way. Maybe, it’s because we often see math as merely a series of problems to be solved and rules to master and apply. Calculus is one of the branches of math that some students like me find intimidating to learn.This paper aims to establish an appreciation and better understanding of calculus by reviewing its historical groundings and giving the practical application of the subject.The foundation of calculus did not just appear in history, in fact, mathematicians had encountered numerous difficulties and problems that had led to their desire to find ways in which to offer solutions. It is the case that although Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz were the ones to formulate the theorems of Calculus we know today, a fair share of mathematicians began utilizing concepts of calculus as early as the greek period. Calculus was developed from ancient Greek geometry.It was mainly use to Democritus calculated the volumes of pyramids and cones, probably by regarding them as consisting of infinitely many cross-sections of infinitesimal (infinitely small) thickness, and Eudoxus and Archimedes used the â€Å"method of exhaustion†, finding the area of a circle by approximating it arbitrarily closely with inscribed polygons. In fact it was Archimedes who was the first person to find an approximation of the area of the circle using the â€Å"method of exhaustion†; it was the first samples of integration and led to the approximated values of ?(pi). In line with the developments in the field of theoretical mathematics, it can be said that mathematicians encountered their own difficulties with math problems before they were able to actually find the answers through calculus. It was not until the 16th century when mathematicians found the need to further develop the methods that could be used to calculate areas bounded by curves and spheres.Johannes Kepler for example had to find the area of the sectors of the ellipse in order for him to proceed with his work in planetary motion. He was lucky enough to find the answer in two tries despite the then crude methods of calculus. Imagine if he was unable to compute the area of ellipses during that time, chances are there would have been a delay in the development of astronomical science. It was through Kepler’s exploration of integration that laid groundwork for the further study of Cavalieri, Roberval, and Fermat.The latter especially contributed a great deal to calculus by generalizing the parabola and hyperbola as y/a = (x/b)2 to (y/a)n = (x/b)m and y/a = b/x to (y/a)n = (b/x)m respectively. It is the case that some mathematicians (like Joseph Louis Langrange) consider Fermat to be the father of calculus, especially with his formulation of the method used in acquiring the maxima and minima by calculating when the derivative of the function was 0; this method is not far fro m that which we use today in solving such equations.The formulas we use today to determine motion at variable speeds use calculus. Toricelli and Barrow were the first mathematicians to explore the problem of motion by implicitly applying the inverse of differentiation, integral and derivative as inverses of each other in asserting that the derivative of distance is velocity and vice versa. Newton and Leibniz are considered to be the inventors of calculus because of their discovery of the fundamental theorems of calculus.However though both shares credit for the latter, Newton was able to apply it further showing its use both in his works in physics and planetary motion which are considered the most significant of all his contributions. The three laws of motion echoed if not are born out of the notion that since the world changes and derivatives are the rates of changes, and then the latter becomes pivotal to any scientific endeavor that attempts to understand the world. Newton was a ble to use calculus in determine a lot of things during his time.We must remember though, that in voicing Newton it is good to reminisce his advice that abstractions and concepts don’t stand alone, they’re pieced together with other ideas to find a solution, an answer. This goes with his Newtonian laws, which if we are to really understand we must see how it relates with his law of gravitational force. Calculus bridges the gaps between theoretical math and the applied sciences/mathematics; if we are to look at it exclusively then we would miss the entire point of why we use it as such fail to realize its true value.Calculus plays a role in the natural, physical as well as the social sciences; it is being employed in solving numerous problems that wishes to determine the maximum and minimum rates of change. It is capable of describing the physical processes that occur around us. It has even been used to solve paradoxes created during the time of Zeno in ancient Greece. It is impossible to imagine how we can be able to understand the world today without the calculus as one of our tools in acquiring knowledge. We may perhaps still be slaves to mystical forces that were claimed to be the cause of change in this world.Mathematics would remain to us mere abstractions if calculus was not introduced to become the mediator of thought and practice. The development of other disciplines would have not followed without first establishing the existence of the fundamental concepts of calculus. Things which in history were thought to be inconceivable were able to have a figure that man can understand and therefore have the capacity to manipulate though not complete control. Students like me get frustrated when trying to solve a mathematical problem and failing once or twice.Reading on the history of calculus made me realize that mathematicians would not have come up with the theorems and methods we use today if they too decided to simply get frustrated. In as mu ch as Calculus teaches you at what rate things change and how the infinite can be understood, one could also learn the value of knowing something even if exclusively it seems unimportant. In order for us to appreciate the subject we must look at it as part of the greater system of knowledge, without it all things would not be coherent.

How To Say Let in Spanish

Let is one of those English words that can be translated numerous ways in Spanish, because let itself has numerous meanings. Take the example of translating Let me write that down to Spanish. One possibility say, Quiero apuntar eso, which has a literal meaning of I want to write that down. If you wish a more precise translation and indeed are seeking permission to take notes, use Dà ©jame apuntar eso or Dà ©jeme apuntar eso, depending on whether you are speaking in the familiar or formal second person, respectively. Dejar is the most common verb meaning to allow, so what youre saying is allow me to write that down. What is important when translating from one language to another is to look for the meaning of what you want to say and translate that rather than attempting to translate words. You simply cannot translate let the same way all the time. And if what you mean by let is I want to, then just say the equivalent of that — its much simpler! Choices for Translating ‘Let’ A few of the verbs you can use to translate let or phrases that use let include liberar (to let go), alquilar (to rent out), avisar (to let someone know), soltar (to let go), fallar (to let down or disappoint), perdonar (to let somebody off, to excuse) and cesar (to let up). It all depends on the meaning of what youre trying to say. And, of course, in English we use let to form first-person plural commands, as in lets leave or lets sing. In Spanish, that meaning is expressed in a special verb form (the same as the first-person plural subjunctive), as in salgamos and cantemos, respectively. Finally, Spanish sometimes uses que followed by a verb in the subjunctive to form an indirect command that can be translated using let, depending on the context. Example: Que vaya à ©l a la oficina. (Have him go to the office, or let him go to the office.) Sample Sentences Here are sentences illustrating possible translations for let: El gobierno cubano liberà ³ al empresario. (The Cuban government let the entrepreneur go.)Dà ©jele hablar sin interrupcià ³n. (Let him speak without interruption.)Te comunicaremos si algo ha cambiado. (Well let you know if anything has changed.)Los captores soltaron a los rehenes a las cuatro de la madrugada. (The captors let the hostages free at 4 a.m.)Me fallaba muchà ­simo. (He let me down a lot.)Vive y dejar vive. (Live and let live.)A mi no me decepciona nadie porque no espero nada de nadie. Nobody lets me down because I dont expect anything from anybody.Mis padres alquilaron un piso en 2013 por 400 euros por semana. (My parents let out a floor in 2013 for 400 euros weekly.) ¡Me deja en paz! (Let me be alone!)Avà ­same si no puedes hacerlo. (Let me know if you cant do it.)Por fin aflojà ³ la ira de la tormenta. (The fury of the storm finally let up.)Hay ciertos amigos a los que no quiero dejar entrar en mi casa. (There are some friends I dont want to let into my house.)D esde entonces, se desmejorà ³ y crecià ³ su abatimiento fà ­sico y moral. (Since then, he let himself go and sank deeper physically and morally.)